Traditional media

Traditional media are the media that were established before the internet: radio, television, and print media. Starting with the digital revolution of the 1990s, the way information is supplied and consumed began to change, which led to traditional media adapting their content to keep up with their audience and, quite simply, to survive. As a result, written press, radio, and television have been overhauled to offer online versions of their content as well as versions for smartphones and tablets. Even though we have these new ways of getting our news, it is important to remember that traditional media still have the same goal: providing the same information to a large group of people at once. It is up to the people receiving the information provided to them whether they pay attention to it.

The prime asset of traditional, legacy media – characterised by their practice of professional journalism and fairly rigid formats (editorial constraints, periodicity) – is their reputation. Even today, they are still considered reliable sources of information, especially with the rise of news that comes from social media.

Social media

The year 2004 marked the appearance of a new media presence to compete with traditional media: social media (‘new media’). These are digital platforms whose content is generated by users and that rely on users interacting with each other. This collaborative principle is unique to Web 2.0: users, who had previously been mere viewers of web pages, now have an active role. Today’s biggest social networks include Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, Snapchat, and LinkedIn.

Social media, which have become one of the primary sources of information for the general public, especially young people, have a number of distinguishing features that have revolutionised the media landscape. First and foremost, these platforms encourage interaction: nowadays, news programmes are designed to encourage social media commentary, especially Twitter, which promotes discussion amongst its users. Social media also have the power of being instantaneous. Today, thanks to tools such as ‘livetweeting’, users can follow an event as it happens without having to be there. They know what is happening well before it comes on the evening news. Social media have also broken the news monopoly once held by traditional media; because of platforms like Facebook, anyone can be witness to an event and share it with the entire world the very next second. This practice has led to the birth of ‘citizen journalism’, which makes every social media user a powerful producer of information.

Information in the digital era: risks and opportunities

The rise of new, digital forms of information (online news, blogs, Wikipedia, YouTube, social networks, etc.) encourages greater access to knowledge, freedom of expression, and public participation. Today, the coexistence of various print, audio-visual, and online media has increased access to information and has created a culture of participation where the public is not satisfied to just consume information, but also contributes actively to its production and dissemination.

The main risk in this overhauled media landscape is disinformation. Mass use of social networks leads to questions about the veracity of information. What gives someone the credibility to talk about a particular topic? What about the risk of creating confusion around fake news and making it even more difficult to tell fact from fiction on the internet? From this standpoint, ‘classic’ journalism retains its relevance; its mission of curating, analysing, and interpreting information remains indispensable.

What is digital citizenship?

Nowadays, it is difficult or even impossible to live either our professional or private lives without the internet. As ubiquitous as it is, however, it is worthwhile learning how best to use the internet, which includes having better control and understanding of our digital lives.

Definition: Digital citizenship refers to the way in which internet users behave and interact online. Essentially, it is the behaviour we adopt in our online interactions with other users when dealing with sensitive topics of a social or political nature. The rights and obligations we have in real life are the same online. Our behaviour and interactions also define how others perceive us on the internet. At the same time, the way we connect online is not just limited to how we act or what we post, it is also defined by how we protect our privacy in terms of passwords, location, and internet history.

This means that digital citizenship also asks us to have a critical view of the internet and how we use it, especially when it comes to the personal information we share, sometimes without knowing it.

Best digital practices

Definition: ‘Best practices’ refer to both the way we should behave to make the internet a place of freedom and mutual respect as well as the rules that websites and apps require us to follow. In fact, many sites and web services set rules of conduct and rights of users.

Example: The web application Twitter gives this advice for using its tools:

Consider what you Tweet. You are in control of how much information you share on Twitter or any other website. Don’t post information you consider to be private, and be thoughtful about when you want to publicly share your location. Be wary of any communication that asks for your private contact information, personal information, or passwords. If you are ever unsure before you Tweet, we recommend you ask yourself the following questions: Who am I sharing this information with? How much and what type of information am I sharing? How many people can see the information I am sharing? Can I trust all the people that see this information?

But the app also has some essential rules:

Violence: You may not threaten violence against an individual or a group of people. We also prohibit the glorification of violence. Hateful conduct: You may not promote violence against, threaten, or harass other people on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, sexual orientation, gender, gender identity, religious affiliation, age, disability, or serious disease.

It is therefore useful to remember as much as possible that our virtual behaviour has a real impact on people and that online harassment, for example, can lead to real-life tragedy.

On the other hand, the internet nowadays also represents a real instrument for the people. It makes it possible for citizens to be more informed and democracy more participative, as well as making access to information much more fluid. It is a tool that enables the discussion of ideas, communication, and can be used to speak out against dangers and risks to society at large, as is the case of ‘whistleblowers’ who use the internet to denounce corruption or attacks on liberties (see the film/documentary Citizenfour on Edward Snowden).

Maintaining a digital footprint and a positive mindset

Definition: Your digital footprint is the sum total of information on the internet about your online activity. It is an image of you, built up according to your behaviour and posts and your personal choices.

For this reason, it is important to keep a positive digital footprint! You can keep a blog on a particular topic, share your talents, film a video tutorial, collect money for a charitable cause, or help to organise events. The list of possibilities to transform your digital footprint is endless!

What is citizen media?

Definition: The term ‘citizen media’ contains the words ‘citizen’ and ‘media’. It does indeed refer to media – that is, radio, TV, the internet, and other tools that are used to convey information to a large audience. In addition, the modifier ‘citizen’ indicates that the people who write these articles and conduct these investigations are not professional journalists, but rather average citizens who want to lead discussions on specific issues or problems that affect society at large.

As a result, readers stop being purely passive and get involved in shaping and spreading information. Participation is therefore a very important part of citizen media, be it on the radio (online or otherwise), blogs, vlogs (blogs that primarily use video), podcasts, or other means. It allows average people, researchers, or NGO workers to have their voice heard by a large audience.

Example: Blogging as civic engagement in Albania: The blog Peizazhe të Fjalës (‘Landscapes of the Word’), created in 2007 by Ardian Vehbiu, presents itself as a separate, independent space: a sustainable model in the rapidly changing, financially drained, credibility-challenged, and largely politicised Albanian media landscape. In the words of its creator, ‘from the start, the blog has strived to be a “sanctuary” of Albanian free thinking that is protected from intimidation, shaming, humiliation, stigmatisation, trials, indictments, “silencing of the majority”, and other contemporary forms of censorship in public discourse’.

Involvement on social media

Social media have also transformed how information circulates; whereas the model used to be vertical, with news coming down from the top, its spread today has become more horizontal. Anyone can produce and spread content within their own network and even beyond it. Not only do you do have the chance to have your voice heard virtually, but also before or during real-life campaigns on the ground. During the Arab Spring, for example, social networks played an undeniable role, but the political changes came as a result of social movements, such as protests and blockades. Social networks allowed information and ideas to spread quickly, but societal-level change only came about when these actions met physical reality on the ground.

Example: Serbia’s #1of5million movement started in late 2018 and was able to benefit from new technology and modern means of communication to mobilise the public by sharing content online and exchanging information on social networks. The movement was in turn quick to attract a large audience on Facebook and Twitter, which allowed it to create discussion groups and mobilise masses of people against the political system’s creeping authoritarianism and for freedom of expression.

Risks and drawbacks

Remember that journalism is a profession that requires a special skill set and adherence to a code of ethics. At the same time, anyone can train to become a reporter, especially by talking to professional and amateur journalists. Sharing knowledge makes it possible for citizen media to become real, alternative, and reliable sources.

The ease with which anyone today can become an amateur journalist also brings some risks. Producers of information are sometimes unaware of fundamental ethical standards in journalism and publish incorrect or even completely manipulated information.

With citizen media, television channels, written press, and even social media, the amount and variety of information available today is larger than ever. This richness requires keeping a critical mind when faced with all of these sources of information.

Furthermore, while the internet is a place of freedom, it is also a place of economic exchange. The logic of marketing is invading both the internet and social media, turning information into another source of profit.

The spread of certain types of information, especially that which plays to readers’ emotions, is also a potential source of profit in a system that is funded by advertising. Clickbait is on the rise, enticing users to click on a link to visit a website and read an article. The author of the article and owner of the website then get paid by the advertisements on the website based on the number of views the article receives. This also constitutes a source of risk because it is possible to spread misinformation to attract viewers.

Conspiracy theories

While they are not actually a new phenomenon, conspiracy theories have been very popular in recent years, particularly because of how they spread on social media and on the internet more broadly.

Definition: A conspiracy theory is a seemingly coherent and ‘logical’ story or theoretical narrative that aims to demonstrate or reveal the existence of a small group of powerful people who secretly plan illegal or harmful acts to change the course of events or who are trying to take over the world.

Conspiracy theories differ from false information in that they come from an aggregation of hypotheses and arguments that are manipulated to support a particular theory. False information is sometimes used in conspiracy theorists’ arguments, but it does not always align with the theory.

The media and false information do play a crucial role in the extent of the phenomenon. Firstly, wariness or even distrust of the media increases conspiracy theories’ credibility and popularity, all the more so in countries where the media are seen as corrupt or under the thumb of the political system. Secondly, false information uses the same mechanisms as conspiracy theories, such as leveraging fear and manipulating facts, and are often about the same topics.

Examples of some of the best-known conspiracy theories:

– The Illuminati are a secret society whose members include the world’s most powerful people

– The world is flat instead of round – No one has ever landed on the moon

– A plot between Germany and the Vatican is responsible for the breakup of Yugoslavia.

There are also more topical conspiracy theories about 5G, coronavirus, and vaccines.

Hate speech and moderating hateful content

Conspiracy theories are a major part of our relationship with information and with society. They straddle the intersection of prejudices, political leanings, and beliefs and can even have close ties to hate speech. As such, they can quickly sow conflict when they spread. This has been the case, for example, of theories about a worldwide Jewish conspiracy.

Definition: When we talk about hate speech, we are referring to expressions of hatred that may take the form of a phrase, text, sound, or image that expresses rejection of others, is hurtful and thus encourages feelings of hatred. When such an expression of hatred is made public, it can also incite witnesses of it to prove their hatred for one or the other – to choose their side – and sometimes to express that hatred again with similar or higher levels of violence as a result of pressure from the group. This what is known as inciting hatred.

When combined with a lack of critical thinking, this type of content, based on stereotypes and misconceptions, leads to divisive and violent speech by turning one group into a scapegoat bearing all responsibility and guilt, which then leads to overgeneralisations and a feeling of paranoia.

Example: The Roma community is often the target of discrimination and prejudices, being portrayed as dishonest or thieves, all of which keeps them from getting skilled work. Roma are twice as likely to be unemployed than other groups and many of them still live in areas where homes do not have running water.

Moderating particularly hateful content on social media, for example, while providing more inclusive education in civics, media, and digital technology can help limit the slippery slope that leads to physical and mental violence.

Definition: Moderation means deleting, penalising, or even punishing creators of hateful content to prevent its spread. This type of content may include a violent comment on a post, sharing an article, video, photo, or infographic that stigmatises a particular group of people, or a private email or instant message exchange.

Fighting conspiracy theories

Definition: Conspiracism is the tendency to incorrectly present events or phenomena as being the result of an organised conspiracy. It is a way of thinking or attitude that denies generally accepted explanations of facts and replaces them with a conspiracy whose shadowy aim is unknown.

The consequences of conspiracism:

• Generates hate speech
• Makes people believe in unproven theories
• Locks people up into a logic of distrust and misconception, which limits the discussion of ideas
• Makes it more difficult to keep the powerful in check and reveals real political malfeasance or possible conflicts of interest.
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Ways to limit conspiracism:

1. Regulating and limiting hateful content and false information (fact-checking websites, holding social media platforms accountable, etc.)
2. Developing the public’s critical thinking skills through media and information literacy training in order to:

• Question the mechanism of the conspiracy: Is this really sufficient proof?
• Encouraging caution to raise and maintain vigilance among the public (without confusing caution with distrust or doubt with suspicion)
• Channeling criticism and allowing people to be better informed by using logical and verifiable procedures – and finally looking at the world around us objectively.

MYTHS IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE

Typology and purposes of myths

Definition: Myths are a fictional construct used to explain and justify certain social practices and act as rallying points. In addition, though, they also constitute a special type of discourse that is reminiscent of dreams and legends. According to historian Raoul Girardet, fictional constructs loom large in the history of political ideas because they may explain the strong pull of some political systems that lack a religious basis.

The young post-Yugoslav republics all have an interest in creating national myths and symbols in order to create a common sense of belonging to the nation or group. Historian Raoul Girardet suggests four recurring themes found in most myths that show the fundamental importance of fictional constructs in the evolution of society and political ideas:

• The unity myth: This myth exalts the homeland, the collective, and the community, which is represented by one single group of similar individuals (reinforcing ‘us’ versus ‘them’-type thinking).
• The saviour myth: This myth singles out a hero, a guide that can be identified as a role model and who confers legitimacy.
• The golden age myth: This myth idealises the old days, creating nostalgia for a bygone era and attachment to parts of the past in the quest for stability in the present and future.
• The conspiracy theory myth: This myth points the finger at a foreign culprit. The group’s woes are blamed on an enemy figure, which mobilises people in the group against the external enemy.

In general, myths are used as political tools during times of turmoil – moments of identity crisis or anxiety resulting from changes in society and lifestyle. As internal tensions rise, a mythos becomes necessary. These fictional constructs are thus a reaction to changes, lost bearings, and challenged traditions. Myths therefore have a clear political function: to rally the population around a story and common reference points.

Just as an image can capture an idea or event, a myth can capture people’s imaginations. This happens even more so among certain demographics, such as young people searching for an identity, looking to explain the world around them, or who are faced with an uncertain future.

EXAMPLES OF IMPORTANT MYTHS IN THE BALKAN REGION

Every culture has a variety of myths, and not all of them serve the same purpose, but the rich culture of the Balkans has enabled a number of myths specific to the region to spread and thrive.

Example: ‘Descendants of Alexander the Great’

In North Macedonia, the myth that says the Macedonians are the heirs of Alexander the Great is very widespread, even though it is impossible to match the territory of modern Macedonia to the Macedonia of that era, or even to find an ancestral link between the people that lived there in the past and those that do today. Although some of North Macedonia overlaps with some areas controlled by Philip II when he died in 336 BC, Alexander the Great’s kingdom was centred around Vergina in Greece. In addition, the people of the Balkans today are the result of complex intermingling stemming from successive invasions and migrations that have swept the region for more than two thousand years.

Nevertheless, these myths feed contemporary nationalist lines of discourse in the Balkans, which seek to affirm their people’s history in a particular place in order to legitimise their ambitions.

When a myth spreads, it can strain relations between groups of people in the region. In fact, the issue of Alexander the Great’s Macedonian heritage revived tensions during debates around changing the country’s name in 2018. Greek nationalists, who see the term ‘Macedonia’ as a part of Hellenic heritage, refused to let the former Yugoslav republic use the name. This led to multiple violent demonstrations in both countries.

Example: The myth of the ‘Orthodox brotherhood’

In Serbia, Montenegro, and North Macedonia, there is a strong tie with Russia in many people’s minds that comes from a feeling of ‘Orthodox brotherhood’ that unites them especially closely to that country. According to a 2017 study by the Serbian government, one quarter of inhabitants (24%) named Russia as the primary donor of financial and material aid to their country, when in fact 75% of donations and aid come from the European Union or its member states. In addition, over 70% of foreign investment from 2010 to 2017 came from the EU, compared with around 10% from Russia, according to the National Bank of Serbia.

This myth thus arises from an emotional tie rather than a rational one. That emotional relationship endures with the help of politicians such as Serbian president Aleksandar Vučić or Milorad Dodik of Republika Srpska.

To limit their negative impact, myths must be deconstructed through research and in-depth historical or journalistic efforts. However, it is not always easy to conduct research on topics that remain sensitive for the people and governments of the countries involved. Journalists’ lack of resources, the lack of interest from the media in historical research, and the quick spread of conspiracy theories online can hinder the progress of research and the deconstruction of some persistent myths.

It is for this reason that the “Krokodil” Association started a campaign in Belgrade in June 2020 against the instrumentalization of history for political purposes. The goal is to create a space for historical and intercultural dialogue in the countries borne of the breakup of Yugoslavia and to encourage a culture that allows people to come to terms with the past.

Finally, some channels for spreading information can be used to bypass the issue of historical study and the media’s lack of attention to this serious matter. One example of this is cinema.

CINEMA: BOTH A MOUTHPIECE FOR THE PEOPLE AND VECTOR OF MYTHOS

Cinema is another way of promoting a national mythos. Films can be a source of inspiration and are highly likely to have a major impact on public imagination. In fact, unless you are very well-versed in the specific history of the topic in question, it can be difficult to determine the veracity of the events on screen. Furthermore, it is not unusual for some films to have a biased view of events or even to bolster and propagate certain myths, legends, and received wisdom.

Example: In late 2017, RTS (Serbian National Television) produced and broadcast the series Senke nad Balkanom (‘Shadows Over Balkan’) by director Dragan Bjelogrlić. It takes place in Belgrade, capital of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes and then of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, in the 1920s and 30s. The series presents this period as a golden age for the country. There had already been television adaptations of Mir-Jam’s trilogy (Ranjeni orao, Nepobedivo srce, Samac u braku) between 2008 and 2014, as well as a film that led to a series, Montevideo, Bog te video (2012-2014), all of which are sagas that provide a nostalgic view of this same period in the country’s history

However, films can also be used as a powerful tool of deconstruction and as a mode of expression for civil society to confront important contemporary societal issues.

Example: The 2019 short film Take me somewhere nice, by Ena Sendijarević, a young director originally from Bosnia, tells the story of a young Bosnian woman living in the Netherlands with her family who returns to the country of her birth. The film tackles the issues of immigration, interculturality, nationalism, and the return to one’s roots that can prove complicated for young people.

Example: Macedonian director Milcho Manchevski’s film Before the Rain, which won the Golden Lion at the 1994 Venice Film Festival, talks about the war and ethnic tensions between Macedonians and Albanians.

The power of images

‘A picture is worth a thousand words’

For decades now, images have had an important role in our societies, be they on television, in media, advertising, or more directly in our lives with the frequent use of social media. When you see an image, you think you are getting an immediate and full picture of reality, much more quickly than with written text or a speech. As a result, this type of communication and expression has great symbolic power because it can contain so much in so little content.

A double-edged sword

That being said, this great symbolic power is not without its flaws. The tendency to think that an image can speak for itself is a trap to be avoided because images can easily trick our senses, meaning they can be used to mislead or manipulate us. For example, it is very possible to interpret one image in multiple ways.

With the power of social media and the internet, an image, photograph, or video can go viral and global. On the one hand, this virality can be a good thing when spreading images helps to raise awareness, such as the photo of a young Serbo-Croat couple kissing proudly while wrapped in their respective flags, which was disseminated widely on social media. At the same time, however, it means that sometimes we have to deal with the massive and rapid spread of false information or conspiracy theories illustrated by or directly linked to images or videos.

Fabricating and manipulating images

The central role of images and their impact on our societies helps us to understand why the most effective and widespread false information uses visual aids (images, photos, videos). Even when it is not directly linked to a photo, the creator of the false information will usually look for an image (often manipulated or taken out of context) to illustrate it.

There are different types of image manipulation:

• Removing context: This is the most common method because it is very easy to do. It involves reinterpreting the meaning of an image to make it say something else by taking it out of its original context. As a result, the real reasons and circumstances in which the photo was taken no longer matter. The goal is to try and illustrate a statement by only using the surface-level appearance of the image and omitting the backstory, which itself is a kind of betrayal of the image’s meaning.

Example: In August 2020, an image circulated on social media claiming that a 5G antenna had been installed on the roof of a minaret of a mosque in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In reality, the photo showed nothing but the minaret, but the caption said that it had a 5G antenna that was emitting strong magnetic radiation, even though 5G has yet to be installed in the country.

• Doctoring and photo editing: This method involves artificially modifying the original image or photo with the intent of changing its meaning. This can be: 
  • A person or object added to or removed from a photo or video.

Example: After the explosion in the port of Beirut in August 2020, doctored images appeared online that had a missile added into them using video software, implying that the explosion had been a military attack by a foreign country, specifically Israel.

• • The photo can also be cropped to hide part of it, such as during a meeting or demonstration: It is possible to crop out parts of the image where there are no people to give the impression that the whole area was full.

• Deepfakes: This is a manipulation technique that uses artificial intelligence software to replace a person’s face in a video. For example, there is a video of a fake speech by Barack Obama in which he insults his successor Donald Trump. The manipulation was achieved with ‘DeepFake’ technology. With the recent technological advances, it has become increasingly difficult to tell which images have been doctored or manipulated and, with the arrival of new video manipulation methods, even greater caution and more verification of sources will be required.

False information and social media: two connected issues

Sharing photos and videos is a core function of the vast majority of social networks (Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat). In that regard, the danger is actually twofold because, on the one hand, it is possible for any person to publish or share images to a large social media audience, and, on the other hand, image manipulation does not require any actual technical proficiency (as was the case of the photo of the 5G antenna on a minaret in Bosnia and Herzegovina).

Newspaper cartoons and caricatures

The symbolic power of images is something the press has been using for a long time to convey its messages. Even before photography existed, newspapers used images as a form of criticism, particularly caricatures. It is interesting to note that even today, despite widespread use of images and photography, caricatures are still used in the press and the technique has even become a profession unto itself.

Definition: A symbolic form of expression that synthesises a concept, issue, or current event by exaggerating a person or phenomenon’s features or appearance. Most caricatures use a humorous tone to censure and criticise.

Example: In Serbia in November 2018, caricatures by the famous cartoonists Predrag Koraksić Corax and Dušan Petričić were the subject of such controversy that the Lazaravac Library had to take down their drawings. The illustrators were very adamant defenders of freedom of expression and an exhibition of their cartoons and caricatures opened on 22 November at the Stari Grad municipal building in Belgrade.

Caricature is an interesting topic when considering the use of images and their impact, but it is a tool that is seldom used by young people. Because of its symbolic power and the fact that it is attached to a specific context or subject, talking about caricatures with young people often requires contextualisation to allow them to understand the issues and topics the caricature addresses.

Audio-visual works

Documentaries and news reports

Definitions: Documentaries are part artwork and part journalistic enquiry. They are different from fiction because they cover real topics and the primary goal remains to tell the public about reality. As opposed to a news report, documentaries use artistic language that appeals to viewers’ emotions to make them think. Conversely, a news report is a journalistic enquiry anchored in objectivity, even though the author of the report may be a stakeholder and activist. In a news report, all aspects of fiction are abandoned in favour of fact.

Examples:

– Serbian director Mila Turajlić’s documentary Druga strana svega (‘The Other Side of Everything’, 2017) revisits the last 70 years of Serbia’s history from the perspective of Srbijanka Turajlić, the director’s mother and a peace activist. The director creates a dialogue between her family’s history and that of her country, examining the question of the political engagement of previous generations in juxtaposition with the disillusionment of today’s young Serbs.

– Another documentarian, Samir Karahoda of Kosovo, examines the emigration of a section of Kosovo’s youth in his film Në Mes (‘In Between’, 2019). In the documentary, Karahoda highlights a crucial and topical issue facing his country: the lack of economic prospects for a large swath of its young people and the splintering of the family, a very important social unit in Kosovar society.

– There are many televised reports from the Balkans devoted to issues such as corruption and organised crime. One example of this comes from Montenegrin journalist Olivera Lakić, the force behind an investigation into organised crime who was subsequently the target of a firearm attack as a result.

Film and cinema

Fiction and cinema can also examine the same themes as documentaries and news reports, but without following the same formulas. Films can tell fictional stories that are actually inspired by real life. This makes cinema a less restrictive way of dissecting major societal issues and making viewers think.

Example: In his film Honeymoons (2009), Serbian director Goran Paskaljević tells the fictional story of two couples, one Serbian and one Albanian, to examine the topic of emigration to Europe through a lens that is both ironic and dramatic.

Television: Television news programmes

In the history of media and access to information, the arrival of television was similar to today’s social networks in that both have been gamechangers in the way people consume information. This iconic medium retains its importance in our societies, forcing us to reflect on how this audio-visual tool is used to convey information.

Definition: A television news programme generally lasts several dozen minutes, is shown on television, and hosted by one or more presenters. It may offer news reports on international, national, or local topics and be interspersed with recurring segments such as the weather forecast.

The primary aim of a news programme is to provide high-quality reports on current events or feature stories covered by journalists or correspondents that work for the channel. As opposed to radio, which itself provides quick, newsflash-style reports, a television news programme places particular importance on images, both in terms of presenters’ mannerisms and appearance as well as in the reports, photography, and infographics shown on screen (colour-coding, text formatting, set decoration, etc.).

Example: In 2016, the heads of the Albanian channel Zjarr TV’s news programme decided to have nearly topless anchorwomen, their chests barely covered by open blazers, present the headlines. Though an extreme case, this choice, which was strongly criticised as sexist, well illustrates the importance of managing the visuals in a televised news programme.

A limited medium

Although television is a very popular medium, TV channels are not immune to certain economic forces and sometimes even political influence (especially in the case of public channels), which can have an effect on the quality of the information they provide and limit the range of opinions and opposition movements they report on. In the Balkans in particular, pertinent news topics are often replaced with lighter segments, in a manner that mimics tabloid newspapers and gossip magazines.

Example: In March 2019, protestors from Serbias #1od5 miliona movement and other opposition-party representatives demonstrated in front of the offices of Radio Television of Serbia (RTS) to criticise this lack of television representation.

This situation has encouraged multiple international news channels to invest in the region both to give viewers an alternative as well as for geopolitical reasons. As a result, the Qatari channel Al Jazeera has opened a local bureau in Sarajevo in recent years and Russia Today has begun airing news in the local language on Serbian radio station Studio B.

Television news remains popular, but it is losing more and more ground to online media and social networks.

The new screens

Time spent looking at screens has risen steadily each year in every country worldwide, especially among young people. Television takes up a large proportion of that time, but it is social media that has really driven the increase in screen time. A 2019 study by BusinessFibre.co.uk presented a list of countries with the highest number of hours spent online, indicating that the world average for screen time is 6 hours and 42 minutes per day (see link under ‘Taking it further’).

A large part of the time spent on social media is dedicated to watching videos, ever-present on the internet, especially via the app from video giant YouTube.

Definition: YouTube is a video hosting platform and a social network where users can send, watch, comment on, rate, and share streamed videos. Created in February 2005 by three ex-PayPal employees, Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim, and purchased by Google in October 2006 for 1.65 billion dollars, it is one of the most visited websites in the world. In 2020, YouTube had more than 2 billion users log in per month.

It is therefore interesting to note that the platform has adopted certain audio-visual codes from television. For example, we talk about ‘YouTube channels’ and YouTubers need to have the same skills as TV presenters: good oral expression, a look that draws people in, some even replicate TV programmes.

Example: YouTubers with the most followers by country:

Bosnia and Herzegovina: https://www.youtube.com/user/Seherzad

Serbia: https://www.youtube.com/user/SerbianGamesBL2

Montenegro: https://www.youtube.com/user/BalkanGamesHD

Some television channels have realised the appeal of this format to younger generations and have invested in the medium by re-posting shows there or having the option of watching the channel live on YouTube, such as the Serbian channel RTS Sajt– Zvanični, which broadcasts its programme Moja generacija Z (‘My Generation Z) there.

The success of YouTube over television can also be attributed to the wealth of the content it offers. Anyone online can produce or post a video, so people’s tastes and opinions are much better represented than on television. This makes it a tool that citizens can use to express themselves on topics that interest them, produce ‘explainer’ videos, make their ideas heard, raise awareness on a topic, or communicate important information, such as when protestors livestream their movements during a demonstration.

By making itself a hub of audio-visual production and publishing, YouTube and video-ready social media enjoy a dominant position in our relationship with information. This, however, raises central questions around freedom of expression, monopolies, and responsibility they bear for the content they support, especially potentially false information, hate speech, and conspiracy theories, which have sadly become very common on this platform that is used by so many young people.

UNDERSTANDING FAKE NEWS: AN INTEGRAL PART OF MIL

Definition: When people talk about ‘false information’ or ‘fake news’, they are referring to information that has been fabricated, falsified, or distorted and purposefully spread by individuals, activists, or political officials with the intent of manipulating the public and converting them to their ideas.

Spreading false information can be detrimental to a society, as when the aim is to target or accuse a minority group in order to stoke fear and incite hatred toward that group. This is also the case when false information is used to create a feeling of insecurity in pursuit of electoral ambitions; manipulating information turns out to be an extremely effective tool.

Example: There was an uptick in anti-migrant protests in the runup to the general elections in Serbia that took place on 21 June. On 2 March 2020, around 500 people had already gathered in Subotica, a city in the far north that borders Hungary, to denounce the ‘crimes’ committed by migrants within Serbia despite the fact that, according to police data, violations committed by refugees made up a mere 0.06% of registered offenses in the country.

Some news events and scandals, such as the Cambridge Analytica scandal in the United States, in which millions of users’ data were used to target them for fake news, reminds us of how manipulated information has an impact on our lives, from our daily life to presidential elections.

Example: In Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 2020, a 51-year-old woman who had just returned home from a trip to Italy tested positive for coronavirus and was harassed by social media vigilantes after erroneous information was published by a number of media outlets, which stated that she had been to a concert and taken public transport. Some Facebook comments declared that she deserved to be killed because she was infected and that she should never have returned to Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The upshot is that, by distorting, manipulating, and falsifying reality to stoke hatred and win people over with false arguments or information that does not exist, false information undermines the very notion of truth and citizenship in modern societies. Fake news tends to prey on our emotions and prejudices, often confirming our opinions, which makes it easy to spread and take hold on social media. This in turn amplifies its detrimental effects on the quality of available information.

For this reason, because information is essential to our lives and at the heart of our decision making as well as our relationships with others, it is vital that we preserve its reliability and transparency to avoid potential manipulation as much as possible. Beyond being mindful of information quality, thinking critically about the content you read or receive helps limit your risk of manipulation or external influence and form a more balanced view.

OUTSMARTING DISINFORMATION TRAPS

There are a number of ways to fight disinformation:

• Better control the spread of information online by holding platforms and ‘web giants’ accountable (Facebook, Google, Twitter, etc.). These companies have all enacted measures along these lines by giving users the option of flagging false information and deleting accounts that spread hate speech and fake news as well as by launching and promoting prevention campaigns. For example, in January 2020, Facebook announced that it would delete and ban ‘deepfake’ videos on its platform.

It should be noted, though, that letting Big Tech regulate their platforms’ content themselves may be problematic in terms of freedom of expression and censorship since the web giants’ hegemony looms so large. For this reason, some countries have independent bodies in charge of overseeing both the activities of traditional media as well as ensuring that information is checked and users are protected on these online platforms.

• Sensing the urgency of the matter, many countries have also acted, often taking the legislative path, to live up to their role in monitoring and ensuring the reliability of the information that flows within their borders. However, caution is required so that any measures enacted to limit disinformation and bolster methods of control do not, paradoxically, also limit the media’s and people’s freedom of expression, which would hinder the work of journalists.
• It is also possible to prepare the public to confront the rising amount of false information, manipulated images, and increasing, rapid spread of conspiracy theories. Campaigns such as teaching critical media and information literacy seek to encourage the public to protect themselves against these manipulations by arming them with knowledge and teaching them to think critically and for themselves.
• Finally, awareness can also be raised among traditional media. A new kind of journalistic activity has emerged recently in certain countries as well as at a more international scale to mitigate the risks of disinformation: fact checking.

FACT CHECKING

Origins and definition

With the rise in false information and doctored videos and images, especially on the internet, journalistic methods of handling and verifying information have become so vital that many media outlets have recently developed specialised fact-checking websites.

This new journalistic activity originally consisted of systematically verifying politicians’ statements and elements of public debate – such as figures or legislative content. However, as fake news has increased and with it the dangers of disinformation, fact checking today has come to mean quickly ascertaining the truth in a fact, image, or rumour and, more broadly, in any type of information that circulates online.

The limits of fact checking

Although fact checking is a useful tool for verifying information, it must not become an immutable declaration of truth. Indeed, some questions cannot be resolved by simply checking facts, as is the case with issues of politics, opinion, or morality. As its name states, fact checking is about staying factual and checking specific facts.

Moreover, the methods of verifying information may sometimes be incomplete or dependent on other bodies. For example, a fact-checking website looking to determine how many people attended a demonstration would have to trust the numbers released by either the authorities or the organisers of the demonstration, which will almost certainly lead to huge disparities.

Therefore, caution and critical thinking should be encouraged here as well to determine when to trust a fact-checking website and when an issue should be examined more objectively.

FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND FREEDOM OF THE PRESS

• Freedom of expression is a right: the right to freely express your thoughts.

While freedom of expression gives everyone the freedom to think and express their opinions, it has its limits: care must be taken to avoid defamation, injury, incitement of hatred toward any group on the basis of religion, skin colour, or sexuality, and encouraging terrorism and war crimes.

• Freedom of the press is a reflection of the freedom of expression. It guarantees that citizens will have all the necessary information to form an opinion freely.

The role of newspapers is to enlighten readers and encourage citizens to discuss ideas. To do this, journalists follow certain rules. They can talk about any topic, but they must take care to check their information to ensure quality.

In some countries, press freedom is under threat and journalists are kept from covering certain events or criticising the people in power. Each year, the NGO Reporters Without Borders publishes a world press freedom ranking.

JOURNALISM ETHICS

• Journalism is a field that involves researching information, verifying it, putting it in context, categorising it, formatting it, providing commentary on it, and publishing high-quality news; it is not to be confused with communication.
• Journalism as a profession: The idea of urgency or publishing a scoop must not take precedence over serious enquiry and the verification of sources. To work properly, journalists must be able to carry out all of the activities of their profession (enquiry, investigation, capturing images and sound, etc.) freely and have access to all information sources relevant to the facts that affect public life. They must also be able to guarantee the secrecy of their sources.
• The Munich Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Journalists, written in 1971 with participation of all journalism syndicates at the European level, provides guidelines for practicing ethical journalism. According to the declaration, a journalist worthy of the title must:
• Respect human dignity and the presumption of innocence;
• Regard a critical mind, truth, accuracy, integrity, equity, and impartiality as the pillars of journalism;
• Regard baseless accusations, intent to harm, altering documents, distorting facts, doctoring images, lies, manipulation, censorship and self-censorship, and a lack of fact-checking as the gravest professional abuses;
• Exercise great vigilance before divulging where information comes from;
• Be entitled to follow up on interviews, which is in turn holds them accountable for the information they reveal and ensures rapid correction of any such information that should prove to be inaccurate;
• Defend the freedom of expression, opinion, information, commentary, and criticism;
• Shun any disloyal or corrupt methods of obtaining information;
• Not receive payment from any public service, institution, or private enterprise in which his or her standing as a journalist, influences, or relationships are vulnerable to exploitation.